fomites

Fomite transmission depends on environmental persistence, which is why non-enveloped viruses and spore-forming bacteria dominate this route. Non-enveloped viruses such as norovirus, rotavirus, adenovirus, rhinovirus, and enteroviruses lack a lipid envelope and therefore resist detergents, drying, and alcohol, allowing survival on surfaces for days; norovirus outbreaks on cruise ships and in care homes are classic. Clostridioides difficile spores likewise survive alcohol-based hand rub, requiring soap-and-water handwashing and sporicidal cleaning such as hypochlorite. Other fomite-associated infections include adenoviral epidemic keratoconjunctivitis spread by shared ophthalmic equipment and towels, respiratory syncytial virus in nurseries, scabies and lice via bedding and clothing, and dermatophytes via shared shower floors and mats. Enveloped viruses such as influenza, HIV, and herpesviruses are relatively fragile outside the host, so fomite transmission matters less for them. Practical control combines hand hygiene, equipment cleaning between patients, and appropriate disinfectant choice.